注:本文为"文化与文明"相关合辑。
英文引文,机翻未校。
中文引文,略作重排。
如有内容异常,请看原文。
Culture and Civilization
文化与文明
Mohamed Rabie
Introduction: Clarifying Concepts
引言:澄清概念
This short paper is meant to explain the concepts of culture and civilization; because it is often assumed that they have the same meaning. Although the two terms bear similar definitions, their connotations differ from each other, which make their usage interchangeably inaccurate. Explaining the meaning of each word and its connotation, requires an explanation of how they relate to one another in a historical context. Such a clarification is important to understand the course of societal development over time, and to identify the issues that cause different peoples identifying with different cultures to misunderstand each other and at times clash with one another. So without understanding the meaning of each concept and how it relates to the other and differ from it, the evolvement of history and the fate of civilizations and cultures would not be understood correctly. The explanation is also helpful in identifying the issues that cause cultures and their followers to often misunderstand each other, and at times clash with one another causing conflict and war.
本文旨在解释"文化"和"文明"的概念,因为人们常常认为这两个词具有相同的意义。尽管这两个术语的定义相似,但它们的内涵却有所不同,因此不能将它们互换使用。要解释每个词的含义及其内涵,就需要从历史背景中探讨它们之间的关系。这种澄清对于理解社会发展的历程以及识别不同文化群体之间因误解而产生冲突至关重要的原因。如果不理解每个概念的含义及其与其他概念的关系和差异,就无法正确理解历史的演变以及文明和文化的命运。这种解释还有助于识别导致文化及其追随者之间误解甚至冲突的原因。
Definitions from Webster's Dictionary
《韦氏词典》中的定义
Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines "civilization" as an advanced state of human society, in which a high level of culture, science, industry, and government have been reached." An alternate definition by the same source refers to civilization as "modern comforts and conveniences, as made possible by science and technology." As for "culture," it is defined as "the sum total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from one generation to another." Generally speaking, culture stands for the way of life that a group of people follows and defines the social cement that binds them together, forming a community or one society.
《韦氏百科全书》将"文明"定义为"人类社会的高级状态,在这种状态下,文化、科学、工业和政府达到了高水平。"同一来源的另一种定义将文明称为"由科学和技术带来的现代舒适和便利。"至于"文化",它被定义为"人类群体所建立并代代相传的生活方式的总和。"一般来说,文化代表一个群体所遵循的生活方式,并定义了将他们联系在一起的社会纽带,形成一个社区或一个社会。
Components of Civilization and Culture
文明与文化的组成部分
The first definition of civilization as the achievement of "a high level of culture, science, industry, and government" considers culture, just like science and industry, one component of civilization, rather than its other face. This definition also suggests that culture does not include science, industry, or government; presumably, it includes only such intangible things that may be transmitted from one generation to another as beliefs, traditions, customs, literature, and values. Culture, defined by Constantine Zurayk, is "the sum of the creative achievements of the human spirit in society." In Thomas Sowell's formulation, culture "involves attitudes as well as skills, languages, and customs." Michael Naumann, Germany's former Minister for Cultural and Media Affairs, said in 2000 that "culture is a symbol for spiritual innovation, for satirical laughter, for imagination, for an intellectual challenge -- but also for comfort, for relaxation and for all those forms of entertainment that do not automatically dull people's minds."
将文明定义为"文化、科学、工业和政府达到高水平"的成就,将文化视为文明的一个组成部分,而不是其另一面,就像科学和工业一样。这一定义还表明,文化不包括科学、工业或政府;它可能只包括信仰、传统、习俗、文学和价值观等可以代代相传的无形事物。根据康斯坦丁·祖拉克的定义,文化是"人类精神在社会中的创造性成就的总和。"托马斯·索维尔认为,文化"涉及态度、技能、语言和习俗。"德国前文化和媒体事务部长迈克尔·瑙曼在2000年表示:"文化是精神创新、讽刺性笑声、想象力、智力挑战的象征------但同时也是舒适、放松以及那些不会自动使人迟钝的各种娱乐形式的象征。"
Distinctions Between Civilization and Culture
文明与文化的区别
Since civilization includes culture, and culture is only one component of civilization, neither concept should, therefore, be used to refer to what the other means. Using both concepts interchangeably confuse issues related to both culture and civilization and makes it hard to understand how each concept relates to the other, and this makes it difficult to identify the role played by culture and civilization in the past.
由于文明包括文化,而文化只是文明的一个组成部分,因此这两个概念不应被用来指代对方的含义。将这两个概念互换使用会混淆与文化和文明相关的问题,使人们难以理解每个概念与另一个概念的关系,也难以识别文化和文明在过去所扮演的角色。
The Nature of Culture
文化的本质
Culture, as defined above, concerns itself with the quality rather than the quantity of what society has developed over time in the visual arts, literature, values, traditions, and similar fields of human endeavor. It refers to the total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings, interacting with one another in what we call society. This suggests that culture includes traditions, customs, attitudes, laws, belief systems, social institutions, worldviews, ways of thinking, and relationships developed by a group of people over time and transmitted from one generation to another. Culture, therefore, must be understood as a product of one group of people living and working together and interacting with one another for a very long time in one society. This makes culture particular, rather than universal.
正如上文所定义,文化关注的是社会在视觉艺术、文学、价值观、传统以及类似人类活动领域中随着时间发展起来的质量,而不是数量。它指的是人类群体在我们所称的社会中相互交往所形成的生活方式的总和。这表明文化包括传统、习俗、态度、法律、信仰体系、社会制度、世界观、思维方式以及一个群体随着时间发展并代代相传的关系。因此,文化必须被理解为一个群体在一个社会中长期共同生活和工作并相互交往的产物。这使得文化具有特殊性,而不是普遍性。
The Nature of Civilization
文明的本质
Civilization, on the other hand, refers to both the quality and quantity of human achievements in the fields of culture, science, and industry; it is therefore a product of people interacting with each other as well as with nature and technology over longer periods of time in countless places, not in one society. Civilization tends to underline the comforts of life that are attainable through industry, science, technology, as well as culture. These are developments that in and of themselves reflect the accumulation of knowledge developed by all peoples throughout history. Civilization concerns itself with the material and non-material aspects of life, while culture concerns itself with the non-material aspects of life only.
另一方面,文明涉及文化、科学和工业领域中人类成就的质量和数量;因此它是人们在无数地方、在更长时间内与彼此、与自然和技术互动的产物,而不仅仅是一个社会的产物。文明倾向于强调通过工业、科学、技术以及文化可以实现的生活的舒适性。这些发展本身就反映了历史上所有民族积累的知识。文明关注生活的物质和非物质方面,而文化只关注生活的非物质方面。
The Relationship Between Civilization and Culture
文明与文化的关系
Since the interaction of humanity with nature is meant to discover nature's secrets and laws and exploit its resources, economic means and technological tools become decisive factors in making and shaping civilizations, and thus human history. Civilization, therefore, is produced by humanity and thus it belongs to all peoples; culture is produced by one society and thus it belongs to one people or nation. Consequently, culture is particular and portable, while civilization is global and non-transferable; the first is communal and largely national; the second is universal. Because culture is only one component of civilization and one of its many aspects, a civilization can and does often produce more than one culture. Being an attribute of civilization, every culture owes its existence and basic traits to the particular civilization that produced it, and not to any other civilization. This means that when a civilization changes, the cultural component of that particular civilization changes as well.
由于人类与自然的互动旨在发现自然的秘密和规律并利用其资源,经济手段和技术工具成为创造和塑造文明以及人类历史的决定性因素。因此,文明是由人类创造的,因而属于所有民族;文化是由一个社会产生的,因而属于一个民族或国家。因此,文化是特殊的、可移植的,而文明是全球性的、不可转移的;前者是共同体的、主要是民族的;后者是普遍的。因为文化只是文明的一个组成部分和众多方面之一,一个文明可以并且常常产生不止一种文化。作为一种文明的属性,每一种文化的存在和基本特征都归功于产生它的特定文明,而不是其他文明。这意味着当一个文明发生变化时,该特定文明的文化成分也会随之变化。
The Development of Culture and Civilization
文化与文明的发展
Cultures, being products and attributes of civilizations, their developments had to follow that of their mother civilizations. Nevertheless, after a particular civilization is fully developed, its cultural components assume an active role in shaping the direction and influencing the pace of change in society. Cultures also help shape the way younger generations think and behave, influencing the attitudes they usually adopt towards other peoples, other cultures, science and industry, the environment, as well as time and work, education, and technology. However, the most important elements of culture, I believe, are the values it espouses and the attitudes it impels people to adopt, particularly toward work and time, the concepts of peace, freedom and tolerance, as well as the pursuit of happiness and material gain.
文化是文明的产物和属性,其发展必须遵循其母文明的发展。然而,在一个特定的文明完全发展之后,其文化成分开始在塑造社会变革的方向和影响变革的速度方面发挥积极作用。文化还有助于塑造年轻一代的思维方式和行为方式,影响他们通常对其他民族、其他文化、科学和工业、环境以及时间、工作、教育和技术所持的态度。然而,我认为文化中最重要的元素是它所倡导的价值观以及它促使人们所采取的态度,特别是对工作和时间的态度,以及和平、自由和容忍的概念,以及对幸福和物质利益的追求。
The Origins of Culture
文化的起源
Being a product of people's interactions with one another and with nature in one society, the development of culture had to wait for societies to be formed. Only after agriculture was developed and human settlements appeared did culture begin to develop in a systematic way and influence societal change. Since the age of agriculture had lasted about ten thousand years before the industrial revolution began, all cultures produced during that period were products of one single civilization, the agricultural civilization, and therefore were similar to one another. "Until comparatively recently in human history, all humans had the same subsistence pattern. In a certain sense, they all shared a similar, though not identical culture."
作为一种社会中人与人之间以及人与自然之间相互作用的产物,文化的产生必须等待社会的形成。只有在农业发展和人类定居点出现之后,文化才开始以系统的方式发展并影响社会变革。由于农业时代在工业革命开始之前持续了大约一万年,因此在这一时期产生的所有文化都是单一文明------农业文明的产物,因此彼此相似。"直到人类历史的相对近期,所有人类都具有相同的生存模式。在某种意义上,他们共享一种相似的(尽管并非完全相同)文化。"
Ancient Civilizations and Their Cultures
古代文明及其文化
Each of the so-called civilizations of the ancient past is acknowledged as such because of its noted achievements in cultural attributes, economics, science, technology, and political and military organization. All civilizations, regardless of their time, duration, and comparative level of achievements, have produced refined cultures in the form of works of art, literature, architecture, values, and belief systems. Thus, no group of people was able to join the ranks of the acknowledged civilized nations at any time without enjoying a noteworthy cultural life.
古代所谓的每一个文明之所以被承认,是因为它们在文化属性、经济、科学、技术以及政治和军事组织方面取得了显著成就。所有文明,无论其时间、持续时间以及成就的相对水平如何,都以艺术作品、文学、建筑、价值观和信仰体系的形式产生了精致的文化。因此,没有任何一个群体能够在任何时候加入公认的文明国家的行列,而没有享有值得注意的文化生活。
Similarities in Ancient Cultures
古代文化的相似性
Ancient 'civilizations', such as the Greek, the Egyptian and the Roman civilizations, were merely empires that covered large areas of land and ruled several peoples. Since all these empires had lived in the age of agriculture, they had similar cultures, not only to each other but also to other cultures that appeared in other places at the time. Describing life conditions and the way of life in Pacoma, a village in Bolivia, Jack Weatherford wrote: "in many ways Pacoma seems typical of village life across South America as well as throughout India, China and Sub-Saharan Africa." A visit to the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam will reveal that the artist's paintings depicting rural life in Holland, France and Belgium in the 1880's, particularly domestic life, could have been done a century later in Mexico, Thailand or Morocco.
古希腊、古埃及和古罗马文明等古代"文明"仅仅是覆盖大片土地并统治多个民族的帝国。由于这些帝国都生活在农业时代,它们不仅彼此之间,而且与其他地方同时出现的其他文化也具有相似的文化。杰克·韦瑟福德在描述玻利维亚的帕科马村的生活条件和生活方式时写道:"在许多方面,帕科马似乎是一个典型的南美村庄,也与印度、中国和撒哈拉以南非洲的村庄相似。"参观阿姆斯特丹的梵高博物馆会发现,这位艺术家在19世纪80年代描绘荷兰、法国和比利时乡村生活(尤其是家庭生活)的画作,可能在一百年后在墨西哥、泰国或摩洛哥完成。
Modern Civilizations and Cultures
现代文明与文化
The Egyptian Pharaonic era of more than 5000 years ago is considered one of the greatest civilizations of the past, if not the greatest of all. But Egypt of today, is much more sophisticated and advanced than Egypt of the past, yet it is not considered a civilization. And what is true of the Egyptian civilization is also true of the Greek, Chinese, Indian, Mexican, Roman, Persian, and Islamic civilizations. These were empires having similar cultures and life conditions; however, their architectural and artistic achievements and social and military organizations were somewhat different. While people may talk of an American or a Japanese culture, no one talks about an American or a Japanese civilization. These are cultures produced by the industrial civilization and therefore the people of both countries have similar ways of living and states of living.
5000多年前的古埃及法老时代被认为是过去最伟大的文明之一,如果不是最伟大的话。然而,今天的埃及比过去的埃及更加复杂和先进,但并不被视为一个文明。古埃及文明的情况同样适用于古希腊、中国、印度、墨西哥、罗马、波斯和伊斯兰文明。这些是具有相似文化和生活条件的帝国;然而,它们的建筑和艺术成就以及社会和军事组织却有所不同。尽管人们会谈论美国文化或日本文化,但没有人谈论美国文明或日本文明。这些是由工业文明产生的文化,因此这两个国家的人们有着相似的生活方式和生活状态。
The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact
工业革命及其影响
The industrial revolution of the eighteenth century has enabled peoples of Western Europe and North America to achieve higher levels of culture, science, industry, and government, causing the western state of human living to be recognized as having reached the highest status of all civilizations. This civilization is the one commonly known as the "Western Civilization," but, to be accurate, it should be called the industrial civilization. In fact, this civilization no longer describes life conditions in the West only, but in all industrialized societies of the West and East. Advanced civilizations produce refined cultures, and refined cultures reflect the achievements of advanced civilizations. This means that the material and non-material achievements of each civilization go hand in hand, and their internal and external interactions are what make progress, stagnation, or regression possible or inevitable.
18世纪的工业革命使西欧和北美的人们在文化、科学、工业和政府方面达到了更高的水平,使西方的人类生活状态被认为是所有文明中达到的最高水平。这种文明通常被称为"西方文明",但更准确地说,它应该被称为工业文明。事实上,这种文明不再仅描述西方的生活条件,而是描述西方和东方所有工业化社会的生活条件。先进的文明产生精致的文化,而精致的文化反映了先进文明的成就。这意味着每个文明的物质和非物质成就相辅相成,其内部和外部的互动使得进步、停滞或倒退成为可能或不可避免。
Cultures as Products of Civilizations
文化作为文明的产物
Cultures, therefore, are products of civilizations, and their levels of achievements and sophistication are functions of the achievements of the civilizations to which they belong. Advanced civilizations produce refined cultures, and refined cultures reflect the achievements of advanced civilizations. The material and non-material achievements of civilizations thus go hand in hand, and their internal dynamics and interactions are what make progress, stagnation, and or regression possible.
因此,文化是文明的产物,其成就水平和精致程度取决于它们所属文明的成就。先进的文明产生精致的文化,而精致的文化反映了先进文明的成就。文明的物质和非物质成就相辅相成,其内部动态和互动使得进步、停滞或倒退成为可能。
Subcultures and Cultural Diversity
亚文化与文化多样性
However, the only society that has had a common culture was the tribal society; all other societies that followed have a national cultural framework, within which more than one subculture exists. Subcultures are products of economic, religious, ethnic, and ideological forces that cause each group within each society to feel and behave and often believe differently. For example, the development and legitimization of the private property institution in the age of agriculture caused society to be divided into two major social classes, rich and poor; and that caused the culture of each class to be somewhat different from the culture of the other. In the industrial age, economic activity caused society to be divided into three major social classes; each one of them has its own culture that differs, sometimes substantially, from the cultures of the other two classes.
然而,唯一拥有共同文化的只有部落社会;随后的所有其他社会都具有国家文化框架,在其中存在多个亚文化。亚文化是经济、宗教、种族和意识形态力量的产物,这些力量导致每个社会中的每个群体有不同的感受、行为方式,甚至信仰。例如,在农业时代,私有制的发展和合法化导致社会被划分为两个主要社会阶层:富人和穷人;这使得每个阶层的文化与其他阶层的文化有所不同。在工业时代,经济活动导致社会被划分为三个主要社会阶层;每个阶层都有自己的文化,与其他两个阶层的文化有时存在显著差异。
Sociocultural Groups and Cultural Management
社会文化群体与文化管理
Today, as the knowledge age advances, societies are being divided into groups along sociocultural lines more than into socioeconomic classes. However, each sociocultural group has within its ranks socioeconomic classes. In the United States, there are religious groups that have their own cultures, but since all such groups have to go to the same schools and abide by the same laws and work for similar institutions and corporations, their cultures tend to have many things in common; and this makes all subcultures components of one colorful national culture. Nevertheless, cultural diversity based on different religions and perceived different races makes the management of cultural diversity rather difficult; it also makes conflict easy to ignite and hard to control.
如今,随着知识时代的推进,社会更多地沿着社会文化线被划分为群体,而不是社会经济阶层。然而,每个社会文化群体内部都存在社会经济阶层。在美国,存在着具有自身文化的宗教群体,但由于所有这些群体都必须去同一所学校、遵守相同的法律,并为类似的机构和公司工作,因此它们的文化有许多共同之处;这使得所有亚文化成为一种丰富多彩的国家文化的一部分。然而,基于不同宗教和被感知为不同种族的文化多样性使得文化多样性的管理相当困难;它也使得冲突容易被点燃且难以控制。
Conclusion: The Importance of Knowledge Sharing
结语:知识共享的重要性
Since my motto is, "Knowledge not shared is Knowledge wasted, and the more we share, the more we gain people of knowledge" I ask all readers to recommend every article and book they like because it will help inform others. We all share the responsibility to make our world more hospitable to peace, social justice, and freedom; a lofty goal we cannot reach without spreading knowledge and awareness in every corner of our mother earth.
我的座右铭是:"不分享的知识是浪费的知识,我们分享得越多,获得知识的人就越多。"因此,我呼吁所有读者推荐他们喜欢的每一篇文章和书籍,因为这将有助于告知他人。我们都肩负着让我们的世界更加和平、社会正义和自由的责任;这是一个崇高的目标,我们无法在没有在地球的每一个角落传播知识和意识的情况下实现。
About the Author
关于作者
Prof. Rabie is a distinguished professor of International Political Economy; he attended 5 universities and taught at 10 others on four continents. He has published 57 books, about 200 scholarly papers, and over 2000 newspaper articles. Books are 16 in English, one in Albanian, and 40 in Arabic. English Books include Saving Capitalism and Democracy; Global Economic and Cultural Transformation; A Theory of Sustainable Sociocultural and Economic Development; The Global Debt Crisis and its Socioeconomic Implications; all books were published by Palgrave Macmillan between 2013 and 2017. Arabic Books include 3 poetry collections, 2 novels, and a story; the rest is mostly academic books and collections of ideas and reflections. Prof. Rabie is president of the Arab Thought Council in Washington, DC, a member of the Arab Thought Forum, and a fellow of the Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation since 1992. Grants and scholarships financed his education from high school to receiving his Ph.D. in 1970 from the University of Houston; grants covered studies in Jordan, Egypt, Germany, and America. He is the winner of the State of Palestine Lifetime Achievement Award for scholarly publications and several other awards. His writings and positions reflect a strong commitment to peace, social justice, freedom, human development, as well as social, cultural, economic, and environmental sustainability.
拉比教授是国际政治经济学的杰出教授;他曾就读于5所大学,并在四大洲的10所其他大学任教。他出版了57本书,大约200篇学术论文和2000多篇报纸文章。其中16本书是英文的,1本是阿尔巴尼亚文的,40本是阿拉伯文的。英文书籍包括《拯救资本主义和民主》《全球经济与文化转型》《可持续社会文化与经济发展理论》《全球债务危机及其社会经济影响》,这些书都由帕尔格雷夫·麦克米伦出版社在2013年至2017年之间出版。阿拉伯文书籍包括3部诗集、2部小说和一个故事;其余大多是学术书籍以及思想和反思的文集。拉比教授是华盛顿特区阿拉伯思想委员会的主席,阿拉伯思想论坛的成员,以及自1992年以来的亚历山大·冯·洪堡基金会的研究员。从高中到1970年在休斯顿大学获得博士学位,他的教育一直由奖学金资助;这些奖学金涵盖了他在约旦、埃及、德国和美国的学习。他是巴勒斯坦国学术出版物终身成就奖以及若干其他奖项的获得者。他的著作和立场反映了他对和平、社会正义、自由、人类发展以及社会、文化、经济和环境可持续性的坚定承诺。
Civilization vs. Culture
文明与文化
What's the Difference?
有何区别?
Civilization and culture are closely intertwined concepts, yet they have distinct characteristics. Civilization refers to the complex social, political, and economic systems that emerge when human societies advance and develop organized communities. It encompasses aspects such as urbanization, technological advancements, and governance structures. On the other hand, culture encompasses the beliefs, values, customs, and traditions that shape the way of life of a particular group of people. It includes elements like language, art, music, religion, and social norms. While civilization represents the tangible and material aspects of human progress, culture represents the intangible and symbolic aspects that define a society's identity and heritage. In essence, civilization provides the framework for societal development, while culture gives it meaning and uniqueness.
文明与文化是紧密交织的概念,但它们具有不同的特征。文明指的是人类社会进步并发展出有组织的社区时出现的复杂社会、政治和经济体系。它涵盖了城市化、技术进步和治理结构等方面。另一方面,文化包含塑造特定群体生活方式的信仰、价值观、习俗和传统,包括语言、艺术、音乐、宗教和社会规范等元素。文明代表人类进步的有形和物质层面,而文化代表定义社会身份和遗产的无形和象征性层面。本质上,文明为社会发展提供框架,而文化赋予其意义和独特性。
Comparison
对比
Attribute 属性 | Civilization 文明 | Culture 文化 |
---|---|---|
Definition 定义 | A complex human society characterized by urban development, social stratification, government, and cultural and technological advancements. 以城市发展、社会分层、政府以及文化和技术进步为特征的复杂人类社会。 | The ideas, beliefs, values, norms, customs, practices, and artifacts that characterize a particular group or society. 表征特定群体或社会的观念、信仰、价值观、规范、习俗、实践和手工艺品。 |
Origin 起源 | Emerges as societies transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled agricultural communities. 随着社会从狩猎采集生活方式向定居农业社区过渡而出现。 | Develops as a result of shared experiences, history, and interactions within a group or society. 因群体或社会内部的共享经验、历史和互动而形成。 |
Size 规模 | Can range from small city-states to vast empires encompassing multiple regions or continents. 范围可从小型城邦到涵盖多个地区或大陆的庞大帝国。 | Varies in scale, from small communities to entire nations or even global cultures. 规模各异,从小型社区到整个国家甚至全球文化。 |
Political Structure 政治结构 | Typically characterized by centralized governance, with rulers or governments exercising authority over territories and populations. 典型特征为集权治理,统治者或政府对领土和人口行使权力。 | May have diverse political systems, ranging from democracies to monarchies or tribal structures. 可能有多样化的政治体系,从民主制度到君主制或部落结构。 |
Technological Advancements 技术进步 | Often associated with significant technological achievements, such as writing systems, infrastructure development, and scientific discoveries. 常与重大技术成就相关,如书写系统、基础设施发展和科学发现。 | Influences and is influenced by technological advancements, which shape the way people live, communicate, and interact. 受技术进步影响并影响技术进步,技术进步塑造人们的生活、沟通和互动方式。 |
Art and Architecture 艺术与建筑 | Produces distinctive art forms and architectural structures that reflect the civilization's values, beliefs, and aesthetics. 创造独特的艺术形式和建筑结构,反映文明的价值观、信仰和美学。 | Expresses cultural identity through various art forms, including visual arts, music, literature, and performing arts. 通过各种艺术形式表达文化身份,包括视觉艺术、音乐、文学和表演艺术。 |
Language 语言 | Often develops complex written and spoken languages, facilitating communication and record-keeping. 常发展出复杂的书面和口头语言,促进沟通和记录。 | Varies across different cultures, with unique languages or dialects reflecting cultural diversity. 不同文化间语言各异,独特的语言或方言反映文化多样性。 |
Religion and Beliefs 宗教与信仰 | May have organized religions or belief systems that play a significant role in shaping societal norms, values, and practices. 可能有有组织的宗教或信仰体系,在塑造社会规范、价值观和实践中发挥重要作用。 | Encompasses a wide range of religious and spiritual beliefs, rituals, and practices that provide meaning and guidance to individuals and communities. 包含广泛的宗教和精神信仰、仪式及实践,为个人和社区提供意义和指导。 |
Social Structure 社会结构 | Often characterized by social hierarchies, with distinct classes or castes based on factors such as wealth, occupation, or birth. 典型特征为社会等级制度,基于财富、职业或出身等因素形成不同阶级或种姓。 | Shapes social interactions, roles, and relationships within a society, including family structures, gender roles, and social norms. 塑造社会内部的社交互动、角色和关系,包括家庭结构、性别角色和社会规范。 |
Economic System 经济体系 | Can have various economic systems, including barter, trade, or complex market economies. 可能有各种经济体系,包括物物交换、贸易或复杂的市场经济。 | Influences economic practices, such as production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, within a cultural context. 在文化背景下影响经济实践,如商品和服务的生产、分配和消费。 |
Further Detail
深入解析
Introduction
引言
Civilization and culture are two interconnected concepts that shape the development and identity of societies. While they are often used interchangeably, they have distinct attributes that contribute to the complexity of human existence. Civilization refers to the advanced stage of human social development and organization, characterized by the establishment of cities, complex political systems, and technological advancements. On the other hand, culture encompasses the beliefs, customs, arts, and social institutions of a particular group or society. In this article, we will explore the attributes of civilization and culture, highlighting their similarities and differences.
文明与文化是两个相互关联的概念,塑造着社会的发展和身份。尽管它们常被互换使用,但它们具有不同的属性,共同构成人类存在的复杂性。文明指人类社会发展和组织的高级阶段,特征为城市的建立、复杂的政治体系和技术进步。另一方面,文化包含特定群体或社会的信仰、习俗、艺术和社会制度。本文将探讨文明与文化的属性,突出它们的相似点和不同点。
Attributes of Civilization
文明的属性
Civilization is marked by several key attributes that distinguish it from less developed societies. One of the primary attributes is the establishment of cities, which serve as centers of economic, political, and social activities. Cities provide a platform for trade, specialization of labor, and the development of complex social hierarchies. Additionally, civilization is characterized by the presence of advanced agricultural practices, which enable surplus food production and support larger populations.
文明的显著特征是若干关键属性,使其有别于欠发达社会。主要属性之一是城市的建立,城市作为经济、政治和社会活动的中心,为贸易、劳动分工和复杂社会等级制度的发展提供了平台。此外,文明的特征还包括先进的农业实践,这些实践使粮食剩余生产成为可能,并支撑更大的人口规模。
Another attribute of civilization is the development of complex political systems. These systems include monarchies, democracies, or other forms of governance that regulate the functioning of society. They establish laws, maintain order, and provide a framework for decision-making. Furthermore, civilization is often associated with technological advancements. From the invention of the wheel to the development of sophisticated infrastructure, technology plays a crucial role in the progress of civilizations.
文明的另一个属性是复杂政治体系的发展。这些体系包括君主制、民主制或其他治理形式,用于规范社会运作,制定法律、维持秩序并提供决策框架。此外,文明常与技术进步相关联。从轮子的发明到复杂基础设施的发展,技术在文明进步中扮演关键角色。
Economic systems are also a defining attribute of civilization. As societies become more complex, they develop intricate systems of trade and commerce. This includes the establishment of markets, currency, and the division of labor. Specialization in various professions and the exchange of goods and services contribute to the economic growth and prosperity of civilizations.
经济体系也是文明的决定性属性。随着社会变得更加复杂,它们发展出复杂的贸易和商业体系,包括市场的建立、货币和劳动分工。各行业的专业化以及商品和服务的交换,推动了文明的经济增长和繁荣。
Lastly, civilization is characterized by the accumulation of knowledge and the pursuit of intellectual endeavors. This includes the development of written language, the creation of art, literature, and scientific discoveries. Education and the transmission of knowledge from one generation to another are essential components of civilized societies.
最后,文明的特征是知识的积累和对智力活动的追求,包括书面语言的发展、艺术创作、文学和科学发现。教育和知识的代际传递是文明社会的重要组成部分。
Attributes of Culture
文化的属性
Culture, on the other hand, encompasses a broader range of attributes that shape the identity and behavior of a particular group or society. One of the primary attributes of culture is language. Language serves as a means of communication, allowing individuals within a culture to express their thoughts, beliefs, and emotions. It also plays a crucial role in preserving and transmitting cultural heritage.
另一方面,文化包含更广泛的属性,塑造特定群体或社会的身份和行为。文化的主要属性之一是语言。语言作为交流工具,使文化中的个体能够表达思想、信仰和情感,同时在保存和传递文化遗产方面发挥关键作用。
Beliefs and values are another significant aspect of culture. They shape the worldview and moral framework of a society, influencing individual and collective behavior. These beliefs can be religious, philosophical, or ethical in nature, providing a sense of purpose and guiding principles for the community.
信仰和价值观是文化的另一个重要方面,它们塑造社会的世界观和道德框架,影响个人和集体行为。这些信仰可以是宗教、哲学或伦理性质的,为社区提供目标感和指导原则。
Customs and traditions are deeply ingrained in culture and reflect the social norms and practices of a society. They encompass rituals, ceremonies, celebrations, and everyday behaviors that are passed down from generation to generation. Customs and traditions contribute to the cohesion and identity of a cultural group.
习俗和传统深深植根于文化中,反映社会的规范和实践,包括代代相传的仪式、庆典和日常行为。习俗和传统促进文化群体的凝聚力和身份认同。
Art and literature are also integral components of culture. They serve as creative expressions of human experiences, emotions, and imagination. Artistic forms such as painting, sculpture, music, dance, and literature provide a medium for cultural expression, reflecting the values, aesthetics, and historical narratives of a society.
艺术和文学也是文化的组成部分,作为人类经验、情感和想象力的创造性表达。绘画、雕塑、音乐、舞蹈和文学等艺术形式为文化表达提供了媒介,反映社会的价值观、美学和历史叙事。
Lastly, social institutions are an essential attribute of culture. These institutions include family structures, educational systems, religious organizations, and political frameworks. They provide the social structure and organization necessary for the functioning of a society, shaping the behavior and interactions of its members.
最后,社会制度是文化的重要属性,包括家庭结构、教育体系、宗教组织和政治框架。它们为社会运作提供必要的社会结构和组织,塑造成员的行为和互动方式。
Similarities and Interconnections
相似点与联系
While civilization and culture have distinct attributes, they are deeply interconnected and influence each other in various ways. Civilization provides the infrastructure and framework for the development and preservation of culture. The establishment of cities, political systems, and technological advancements creates the conditions for the flourishing of cultural practices, beliefs, and institutions.
尽管文明和文化具有不同的属性,但它们深度互联并以多种方式相互影响。文明为文化的发展和保存提供基础设施和框架,城市、政治体系和技术进步的建立为文化实践、信仰和制度的繁荣创造了条件。
On the other hand, culture shapes the trajectory and direction of civilization. Beliefs, values, and customs influence the decisions made within political systems, the development of technology, and the allocation of resources. Cultural expressions, such as art and literature, often reflect the social, political, and economic realities of a civilization.
另一方面,文化塑造文明的轨迹和方向。信仰、价值观和习俗影响政治体系内的决策、技术发展和资源分配。艺术和文学等文化表达常反映文明的社会、政治和经济现实。
Furthermore, civilization and culture both evolve and change over time. They are not static entities but rather dynamic processes that adapt to new circumstances and challenges. As civilizations encounter different cultures through trade, migration, or conquest, they assimilate and incorporate elements of those cultures, leading to cultural diffusion and the enrichment of civilization.
此外,文明和文化都随时间演变和变化,它们不是静态实体,而是适应新环境和挑战的动态过程。当文明通过贸易、迁徙或征服接触不同文化时,会吸收和融合这些文化的元素,导致文化传播和文明的丰富。
Conclusion
结论
In conclusion, civilization and culture are intertwined concepts that shape the development and identity of societies. Civilization is characterized by the establishment of cities, advanced agricultural practices, complex political systems, technological advancements, and the accumulation of knowledge. Culture encompasses language, beliefs, customs, art, and social institutions. While civilization provides the framework for the development of culture, culture influences the trajectory and direction of civilization. Both civilization and culture are dynamic processes that evolve and adapt over time, contributing to the complexity and diversity of human existence.
总之,文明与文化是交织的概念,塑造着社会的发展和身份。文明的特征是城市的建立、先进的农业实践、复杂的政治体系、技术进步和知识的积累。文化包含语言、信仰、习俗、艺术和社会制度。文明为文化发展提供框架,而文化影响文明的轨迹和方向。文明和文化都是随时间演变和适应的动态过程,共同构成人类存在的复杂性和多样性。
何怀宏:文明与文化的五大区别
新人文历史 2025 年 06 月 13 日 22:15 山西
选自何怀宏《文明的两端》引言 2022 广西师范大学出版社 "文明" 与 "文化" 这两个词,意思接近,有时是可以不必严格区分的,如梁漱溟就时而这样使用。 但是,为了更好地把握 "文明" 这一概念,我们还是要在两者的比较中加深对其的理解。
第一,"文明" 与 "野蛮" 相对。"文明" 首先意味着一个普遍的历史过程,其范畴一般不会包括单纯采集狩猎的人类历史阶段;但 "文化" 却可以指原始社会的文化。 如布罗代尔所言,在 1874 年爱德华・泰勒出版《原始文化》之后,人类学界越来越多地用 "文化" 来表述原始社会。现在,我们也会将一些地域的考古发现称作 "某某文化"。 在现实的日常语言使用中,"文明" 还可以指一种彬彬有礼的,体现了文明进展成果,合乎礼仪规范,尤其是非残忍与野蛮的行为和活动。 但这并不是一种完全的道德评价,"文明" 更强调的是行为礼仪方面。就内心而言,在有的思想家看来,原始人也许还要更为心地单纯或淳朴,乃至是 "高贵的野蛮人"。
第二,与上面一条相关,"文明" 更强调共性、普遍性、普世性,而 "文化" 则更强调特殊性、差异性、民族性。 也是因此,"文明" 比 "文化" 具有更大的涵盖性和包容性。当我们就一个地域或社会、民族、宗教说 "文明" 的时候,我们是就其共性而言的;而当我们说到 "文化",就常常已经意味着多元了。 文化总是一个复数,过去的文明在相互分离的情况下也是一个复数,但在地理大发现之后,则越来越多地趋同,以致我们可以用 "人类文明" 或 "地球文明" 这样的概念来统括它。这时,和它相对而言的大概就是尚未得见的 "外星文明" 了。
第三,"文明" 一定包含 "物质文明",但 "文化" 却并不一定如此。 与 "文明" 相区别使用的时候,"文化" 甚至更多的只是表示一种 "精神文化""精神文明"。这在德语文化中尤其明显。
第四,因此,在移植方面,文明的成果要比文化的成果容易得多。 这在物质文明方面尤其明显,但久而久之,它也会影响到政治结构的变革和价值观念的趋同,就像传播到世界的工业革命也会影响到民主制度的建立和追求物质的观念上升一样。 "文明" 的传递是 "明",明白了之后很快就可以照着做;而 "文化" 的传递则是 "化",大概非得有一个濡染、生长的过程不可。
最后,"文明" 有一个确定的历史,有一个大致的共识。 即一般都认为,人类文明是从一万余年前开始的,但人类文化却没有这样一个统一的、明确的历史。 正是基于文明有确定的万年历史,所以,本书也才说 "文明的两端"------ 文明诞生的一端和文明现代的一端。
总之,"文明" 的概念比 "文化" 更广大,也更固定,或者反过来说,"文化" 的概念比 "文明" 更细微,也更弥散。 在区别地使用这两个词的时候,我们常常用 "文化" 表达 "文明" 的精神的部分,不那么器物的部分。 而作为精神文化的文明,是不大可能被快速移植和挪用的,只能通过生长和培养,即只能 "化",而无法像物质文明的东西那样马上拿过来 "用" 或 "造"。 当然,无论物质文明(器物之学)还是政治文明(制度之学),一旦 "明" 了以后,也不是马上就可以拿过来 "造" 的,因为物质产品和政治制度的后面也有内在的精神,所以,技术产品虽然相对好模仿,但其后面的科学精神和社会的创新条件却不是那么好学的,制度就更是如此。
现在,我们也许可以给 "文明" 下这样一个定义:文明,就是一定数量的人们,具有一定的可以持久固定群居的物质生活基础,形成了或者正在走向一定的政治秩序,具有一定的精神生活形态的人类开化状态。也即,文明一般包括三个要素:
● 一是物质文明,包括劳动的分工、稳定的物质生活来源和剩余收益,以及相当规模的聚居,如城镇;
● 二是政治文明,包括出现了国家或国家的雏形,或者正在走向国家,且可能也要容纳其中局部和暂时的政治秩序的崩溃;
● 三是精神文明,不仅有精神的内心生活,还有精神的外在形态和成果,包括文字,或至少丰富精致的口头语言,有各种可以流传和留存的精神产品,有比较稳定的价值观念等。
什么是文化什么是文明?它们有什么区别和联系?
原创 铁马老言 深活 show 2025 年 05 月 20 日 10:37 四川
文化,是人类在社会实践过程中所获得的物质、精神的生产能力和创造的物质、精神财富的总和。
文明,是人类历史积累下来的有利于认识和适应客观世界、符合人类精神追求、能被绝大多数人认可和接受的人文精神、发明创造的总和。
对照这二个定义,似乎意思基本一致,那么他们的区别在哪里,联系又是什么?这需要我们从两个词汇的产生与历史定义中去进行辨析。
文明与文化的起源
文明这个词来源于法语的 "civilization" ,它首次出现在离今天并不算太遥远的 1765 年。当时,法国大革命时期的政治家米拉波创造了 "文明" 这一概念,用来指代一个文雅、有教养、举止得当、具有美德的社会群体。在他创造这一名词之后的不到 10 年时间里,"文明" 一词风靡欧洲,成了启蒙思想中的常用词。所以 "文明" 是启蒙运动与法国大革命的产物,具有鲜明的政治色彩。
而文化这个词来源于拉丁语的 "culture",原意是指对土地的耕作、培育 ,强调人类对自然的改造和利用,后来逐渐引申为对人类自身内在世界的改造和完善,包括道德、知识、艺术等方面的培养。所以,文化是一个社会性的词汇,表达的是人自发的改造与发现。
日本明治维新运动中,大量翻译西方学术思想,而在名词的使用上,则主要在中国古代典籍中寻找含意相近的字、词,于是源于法语的 "civilization" 和拉丁语的 "culture" 就被分别翻译成了 "文明" 与 "文化",后来这两个词也成为中国学术界的常用术语。有些人用古代汉语 "文明" 与 "文化" 的字义来解释它们,说 "文化" 是指 "文治教化","文明" 是指 "光明德治",不说离题万里,那也相距甚远。
文化与文明这两个词语产生之后,不同的学者对他们的定义也不断地发生争论。任何新的名词,它在原词根基础上创建出来,就是为了新的定义,不是简单对原定义的延伸。而新定义的词语必然会随着学者对他它的阐释、丰富,而逐步形成一个更新的定义。只有学界对这个新定义的研究达到相当丰富、完善,形成较普遍共识的时候,这个词语的定义才算基本完成。
文化与文明的历史演变
从历史来说,人类开始制造和使用工具文化就产生了,人类文化史长达约 300 万年,我们将那时称为旧石器文化时代,我们熟知的北京人、元谋人等,都是旧石器时代的遗迹发现。但是旧石器时代的人类属于直立人,和今天世界上的所有人都不存在遗传关系,今天的人类都是智人的后代。
今天世界上发现的与我们密切相关的古代文化遗址,基本都属于新石器时代,比如纳图夫文化、马尔德林文化,以及我们熟知的红山文化、良渚文化等。
而从文化时代进化到文明时代的标志,是城邦、文字与金属冶炼的产生(三者具备二个就可以认为进入了文明时代)。 现在历史学界公认最早的文明是苏美尔文明,距今大约 6000 年(也有历史学家认为埃及文明比苏美尔文明历史更早)。
所以从文化时代进入到文明时代的核心标志就是人类行为从**"社会性行为"**转变为 "政治性行为" ,这也是区分 "文化" 与 "文明" 的核心标准。
英国著名历史学家阿诺德 - 汤因比总结了人类文明史上存在过的 21 种文明,包括中华文明、苏美尔文明、埃及文明、米诺斯文明、玛雅文明、印度文明、安第斯文明等,其中如玛雅文明、安第斯文明等已经消失了,有些则融合进了后来的文明当中。
我们比较熟悉的是中国、印度、埃及、美达布索米亚四大古文明的说法,但世界历史学家普遍认为除此之外,米斯斯文明、玛雅文明也是非常辉煌的原生文明,所以有六大文明古国之说(也有人将波斯文明列入其中取代玛雅)。而之后世界各地的文明,基本上都是在这六大文明基础上发展演化而成的,属于副文明,比如罗马文明就是希腊文明、两河文明与埃及文明的融合产物,基督教文明则是罗马文明与希腊、阿拉伯地区等多种文明融合的产物。
西方学者将文明总结为由以下几个要素构成的。
1. 生活条件的改善
即物质上更丰富。这包括吃、穿、住、行及卫生、公共健康等得到改善,同时也包括商业、制造业得到发展,公共财富不断增加等。
2. 政府执政能力的改善和法律的进步
这也就是说,政府将制订出保证每个人公正和平等的权利及最大限度地捍卫个人自由的法律。而且,这一法律还会得到有效彻底的执行。
3. 文学和语言的进步
4. 科学和哲学的进步
5. 艺术和品位的进步
6. 道德和宗教的进步
从文明产生之后,就产生了文化与文明历史时期的分别,以及文化与文明的层次的分别。
而如今,虽然争议仍然有,但至少有了基本的普遍的共识:文化主要侧重于具象表现的社会化的人类创造,比如音乐、绘画、戏曲、服装等。而文明主要指政治领域的思想观念、制度、法律等,以及由国家主导的经济建设尤其是工农业生产等。
当然,文化和文明有很多交集,从广义来说文明也是文化,而如文学、宗教则具有文明与文化的双重特征。
而身处当下世界处于 "文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建" 时期(塞缪尔 - 亨廷顿语),尊重不同文明的平等性以及对不同文化的包容才是最重要的,如阿诺德 - 汤因比所言:所有文明样本都是等值的,没有孰优孰劣。如果从短暂的文明史与数百万年的人类史相比,所有文明其实都处于同一时代。比照任何理想的标准,任何文明都没有资格看不起其它文明。
文明与文化(一)
原创 林沧 读书与阅世 2025 年 03 月 19 日 09:18 广东
亨廷顿在《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》(以下简称《文明的冲突》)一书中认为:"米尔斯海默依据国家主义预测了爆发战争的可能性和俄罗斯人可能战胜乌克兰人,这导致他支持乌克兰拥有核武器。(John J.Mearsheimer,"The Case for a Ukrainian Nuclear Deterrent:Debate,"Foreign Affairs,72 (Summer 1993),50 - 66.)文明的研究方法则鼓励俄罗斯和乌克兰之间进行合作,敦促乌克兰放弃其核武器,提倡通过大量的经济援助和其他措施来帮助乌克兰维持统一和独立,为防止可能发生的乌克兰的分裂而倡议应急计划。"(《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》PDF 版,作者:塞缪尔。亨廷顿,出版社:新华出版社,出版日期:2018 - 08 - 01,ISBN:9787501190409,下同。18 页)
亨廷顿的预测之所以错误,是他没有对文明与文化进行正确区分并否认存在普世文明,导致他的理论存在根本性错误。
文明与文化的不同
亨廷顿在中文版序言中写道:"在未来的岁月里,世界上将不会出现一个单一的普世文化,而是将有许多不同的文化和文明相互并存**。**那些最大的文明也拥有世界上的主要权力,它们的领导国家或是核心国家 ------ 美国、欧盟、中国、俄罗斯、日本和印度,将来可能还有巴西和南非,或许再加上某个伊斯兰国家,将是世界舞台的主要活动者。在人类历史上,全球政治首次成了多极的和多文化的。"(同上书,2 页)
亨廷顿认为:"中国人、印度人和西方人都不是任何更大的文明实体的一部分。他们构成了一些文明。因此,文明是对人最高的文化归类,是人们文化认同的最广范围,人类以此与其他物种相区别。"(同上书,24 页)
然而,按照文明的上述定义,就只会有一种与其他物种相区别的最高文化归类和包括中国人、印度人和西方人在内的所有人都认同的人类文明,因为中国人、印度人和西方人都会认同自己同属于人类,中国文化、印度文化和西方文化都是人类文明这个最大文化实体的一部分。因此,亨廷顿认为 "世界上将不会出现一个单一的普世文化,而是将有许多不同的文化和文明相互并存" 与其对文明的定义是自相矛盾的。
亨廷顿认为:"一些人认为,现时代正在目睹奈保尔所说的'普世文明'的出现。那么普世文明的含义是什么?这一观点暗示,总的来说,人类在文化上正在趋同,全世界各民族正日益接受共同的价值观、信仰、方向、实践和体制。更具体地说,这一观点可能意味着一些深刻但不恰当,恰当但不深刻,以及既不恰当又不深刻的事情。"(同上书,.37 页)
为了证明不存在普世文明,亨廷顿提出了如下理由:
"实际上在所有的社会里,人类都具有某些共同的基本价值观,如把谋杀看作是罪恶;也具有某些共同的基本体制,如某种形式的家庭。大多数社会的大多数人民具有类似的'道德感',即'浅层'的关于什么是正确和谬误的基本概念的最低限度道德。如果这就是普世文明的含义,那么它既是深刻的又是根本重要的,但是它既不是新鲜的也不是相关的。如果人们在历史上共有少数基本的价值观和体制,这可能解释人类行为的某些永恒的东西,但却不能阐明或解释人类行为的变化所构成的历史。(同上书,37 页)"
对上述理由,可以用英国进化生物学家理查德・道金斯(Richard Dawkins )在《自私的基因》一书中创造的 Meme 一词来反驳。Meme 的音译是米姆,意译是文化基因或模因。道金斯将文化传承的过程类比为生物学的演化繁殖规则:有共同先祖、随着环境改变进化、优胜劣汰等等。就如同人的生物基因一样,从祖先继承而来的使得人类不同于其它物种的基因也会有突变并且只有那些能适应环境的基因可以表现出来。既然人类生物基因的变化会影响人类的生物特征和行为,那为何决定人类行为的文化基因就不会在历史进程中变化并影响因人类行为的变化所构成的历史?
亨廷顿问:"如果普世文明对于所有的人类存在都适用,那么我们用什么词来称呼人类这一层面之下的主要的人类文化群体呢?"(同上书,37 页)
如果文明不是唯一的,就不可能用不加定语的 "文明" 来表达不同文明。如果要加定语,那么,"中国文明" 和 "西方文明" 与 "中国文化" 和 "西方文化" 有何区别?就如同 "人 (people)" 如果不加定语,是泛指所有人,如果加定语,就是指中国人、印度人和西方人等等。人类(human)则是指所有人,一般不会用中国人类、印度人类和西方人类来表达具有不同文化的人群。所以,文明(civilization)与文化 (culture) 的区别就如同人类(human)与人(people)的区别,文明和人类是指外延(包括所有文化和所有人)最广、内涵(所有文化和所有人的共同属性)最少的普世文化和所有人。虽然可以使用中国文明、印度文明和西方文明来称呼中国文化、印度文化和西方文化,但会使得我们无法区分文明与文化这两个不同的概念,因为文明表示的是所有文化之间的共性,而文化则包括了除了文明之外的差异。
亨廷顿认为:"'普世文明'一词可以用来指文明化社会所共有的东西,如城市和识字,这些使它们区别于原始社会和野蛮人。......。文明在这一意义上说已在整个人类的历史上逐步扩张,文明本身的传播与多元文明的存在并不矛盾。"(同上书,38 页)
根据上述认识,同样可以认为:文明本身的传播与多元文化的存在并不矛盾,而且采用 "多元文化" 代替 "多元文明" 更能区分文化与文明的不同。
亨廷顿认为:"'普世文明'一词可以指西方文明中的许多人和其他文明中的一些人目前所持有的假定、价值观和主张。......。正如赫德利・布尔所指出的那样:'共同的知识文化只存在于精英层次:它在许多社会中根基很浅......(而且)值得怀疑的是,它是否甚至在外交层面上包含被称为共同的道德文化或一套共同价值观的东西,以此与共同的知识文化相区别。'"(同上书,38 页)
包括精英文化在内的任何人类文化都属于文明,就如任何人群都属于人类一样。但包括精英文化在内的任何文化都不等同于文明,就如同包括精英阶层在内的任何人群都不等同于人类一样。
亨廷顿还认为:"一种思想得到了发展,即:西方消费模式和大众文化在全世界的传播正在创造一个普世文明。这种论点既不是基本的也不是相关的。历史上文化时尚一直是从一个文明传到另一个文明。一个文明中的革新经常被其他文明所采纳。然而,它们只是一些缺乏重要文化后果的技术或昙花一现的时尚,并没有改变文明接受者的基本文化。......。说什么通俗文化和消费品在世界上的流行,代表了西方文明的胜利,这一论点反而使西方文化变得无足轻重。西方文明的本质是大宪章(Magna Carta)而不是 ' 大麦克 '(' 巨无霸 'Magna Mac)。非西方人可能接受后者,但这对于他们是否接受前者来说没有任何意义。"(同上书,38 - 39 页)
没有任何理由认为非西方文化只会接受大麦克而不会接受大宪章。日本的明治维新就是接受大宪章的结果。如果不是因为梁启超、蔡锷等人在日本浪人和军方的支持下使得洪宪帝制失败,中国早在 1916 年就会接受大宪章,成为君主立宪制的国家。
文明是使得我们之所以成为人并得到所有人认同的普世文化。不同的文化,比如中国文化、印度文化和西方文化则包含了使得人们成为中国人、印度人和西方人的文化差异。
因此,引起冲突的不是文明,而是不同文化之间的差异。亨廷顿所谓的文明的冲突,实际上是文化的冲突。
文化的冲突本质上是具有不同文化的人群之间的利益冲突。只要存在利益上的不平等,利益冲突就是不可避免的。但如果没有利益上的不平等,人类就会失去创造能力和进步的动力。
不同文化的人群应该求同存异,使得文化的博弈成为正和的合作博弈而非你死我活的零和博弈,更不能成为博弈各方都同归于尽的负和博弈。
为此,我们需要知道什么是文明?什么是文化?特别是如何解决不同文化之间的冲突。
文明与文化(二)
原创 林沧 读书与阅世
2025 年 03 月 30 日 19:35 广东
我在《文明与文化(一)》一文中,引用了亨廷顿对文明的定义:"因此,文明是对人最高的文化归类,是人们文化认同的最广范围,人类以此与其他物种相区别。"(《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》PDF 版,作者:塞缪尔。亨廷顿,出版社:新华出版社,出版日期:2018 - 08 - 01,ISBN:9787501190409,24 页)。
而在原著中,亨廷顿对文明定义的原文是 "A civilization is thus the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species. "(Samuel P. Huntington(1996),The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order(p.43),New York,Simon & Schuster)
DeepSeek(以下简称 DS)对上面这句话的翻译为 "因此,文明是人类最高层级的文化群体归属,是仅次于'区分人类与其他物种'这一根本差异的最广泛文化认同。" 并作了进一步解释:"原文中的'short of that which...' 直译为 ' 仅次于......',强调文明是文化认同光谱上第二高阶的范畴,而最高阶是 ' 人之所以为人 ' 的物种本质差异(如理性、语言能力等)。亨廷顿在此构建了一个文化认同的层级: 物种本质差异(最高)→ 文明认同(次高)→ 民族 / 国家 / 宗教等(更低)。
这不仅让我对 DS 刮目相看,而且发现我原先认为亨廷顿对文明的定义与其文明冲突理论自相矛盾的观点无法成立了。
不过,虽然亨廷顿对文明的定义与其文明冲突的理论没有自相矛盾,但定义本身却存在矛盾。于是,我与 DS 展开了下述讨论:
一、人类与其他物种在文化认同上的根本区别
我:人类与其它物种在文化认同方面有没有区别?或者人类的不同文化,比如中国文化、伊斯兰文化和基督教文化之间有没有共性?如果有,这种与其它物种的区别或人类不同文化的共性是什么?
DS:您的问题触及了亨廷顿理论中隐含但未展开的深层哲学命题 ------ 人类文化的独特性与内部共性的辩证关系。我们可以分两个层面来解析:
1. 抽象符号系统
人类能通过语言、文字、宗教符号等构建复杂的意义网络(如中国的 "礼"、基督教的 "三位一体"),而动物仅能传递有限的具体信息(如蜜蜂的舞蹈表方位)。
2. 跨代际文化积累
人类文化通过教育 / 典籍实现代际升级(如伊斯兰文明保存古希腊哲学),而动物 "文化"(如黑猩猩使用工具)仅限个体间模仿,无法迭代发展。
3. 对终极意义的追问
所有文明都发展出解释生死、宇宙的体系(儒家 "天命"、基督教 "救赎"),这种形而上学需求是物种独特性。
亨廷顿未明言但重要的是:正是这些能力使 "文明冲突" 成为可能 ------ 动物群体争夺资源,唯有人类会为 "神圣价值观"(如圣战、民主输出)而战。
二、人类不同文明之间的深层共性
尽管亨廷顿强调文明差异,但不同文明共享以下元文化结构(meta - cultural patterns):
1. 道德秩序的建构
所有文明都发展出 "善 / 恶" 规范(如儒家 "仁"、基督教 "爱邻人"),即使具体定义不同。这种道德化能力(而非具体道德内容)是人类共性。
2. 神圣与世俗的二分法
中国文化 "天道 vs 人欲"、伊斯兰教 "清真 vs 污秽"、基督教 "上帝之城 vs 世俗之城",均通过神圣性赋予文化合法性。
3. 对暴力使用的文化规制
从中国的 "义战" 到伊斯兰的 "吉哈德条件",再到西方的 "正义战争理论",各文明都试图将暴力纳入文化框架 ------ 这与动物纯粹的本能争斗截然不同。
4. 历史意识与未来投射
文明都通过重构历史(如华夏 "三代之治")和预言未来(如伊斯兰 "马赫迪降临")维持认同,这种时间维度叙事能力是人类的标志。
三、亨廷顿理论的潜在矛盾
1. 张力所在
他一方面承认人类共享上述特质(否则无法谈 "文明间对话"),另一方面又强调文明差异不可调和 ------ 这其实反映了文化哲学的经典难题:普遍人性与特殊文化表达的关系。
2. 当代启示
若强调共性(如 "人类共同价值"),可能掩盖文明冲突的现实;
若极端强调差异(如 "文明本质主义"),则会陷入文化相对主义陷阱。
亨廷顿选择警示冲突风险,但晚年也承认文明需要 "共存规则"(如避免核战)。
结语
人类与动物的文化区别在于符号化世界的能力 ,而各文明共性在于运用这种能力构建秩序的方式 。理解这一点,才能既看到亨廷顿 "文明冲突" 的警示,又不陷入文化决定论的悲观 ------ 毕竟,塑造符号系统的能力,也意味着人类始终保有重新定义文明关系的潜能。
......
至于文明的定义,我认为《文明的冲突》中文版对亨廷顿文明定义的翻译虽然有错误,但这个错误正好纠正了亨廷顿的错误,所谓负负得正。因此,文明的定义如下:
文明是对人最高的文化归类,是人们文化认同的最广范围,人类以此与其他物种相区别。
也可以认为:
文明是不同文化的共性,也是与人类文化与其他物种文化相区别的界限。
via:
-
Culture_and_Civilization
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360448605_Culture_and_Civilization -
Civilization vs. Culture - What's the Difference? | This vs. That
https://thisvsthat.io/civilization-vs-culture -
何怀宏:文明与文化的五大区别
https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/kJPDgggEAkpi36NxzOUrmw -
什么是文化什么是文明?它们有什么区别和联系?
https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/fRHULWQw25MeVCkYkN3bZg -
论文化和文明的相对区别及其重大意义
https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Z-NYLMzRpmb1D1xmsADFPQ -
文化与文明,到底有何分别? - 知乎
https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/115763381