TPO-11 Ancient Egyptian Sculpture
Paragraph 2: The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus****it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, sothat the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches / whose only opening was at the front / , making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context.
made sense 有意义
1. The author mentions "an architectural setting" in the passage in order to
○ suggest that architecturewas as****important as sculpture to Egyptian artists
○ offera further explanationfor the frontal pose of Egyptian statues
○ explain how the display of statues replaced other formsof architectural decoration
○ illustrate the religious function of Egyptian statues
S：The author in order to 目的题
D：纯例子向前一句 Thus
Begging by Nestlings
Paragraph 6: As these experiments show, begging apparently provides a signal of need that parents use to make judgments about which offspring can benefit most from a feeding. But the question arises, why don't nestlings beg loudly when they aren't all that hungry? By doing so, they could possibly secure more food, which should result in more rapid growth or larger size, either of which is advantageous. The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging---such energy costs are small relative to the potential gainin calories---but****rather in the damage / that any successful cheater would do to its siblings , which share genes with one another. / An individual's success in propagating his or her genes can be affected by more than just his or her own personal reproductive success. Because close relatives have many of the same genes, animals that harm their close relatives may in effect be destroying some of their own genes. Therefore, a begging nestling that secures food at the expense of its siblings might actually leave behind fewer copies of its genes overall than it might otherwise.
2. In paragraph 6, theauthor comparesthe energycostsof vigorous beggingwiththe potentialgainin calories from such begging in order to
○ explain why begging for food vigorously can leadto faster growthand increased size
○ explain how begging vigorously can increasean individual's chanceof propagating its own genes
○ point out a weaknessin a possible explanation for why nestlings do notalways begvigorously
○ argue that the benefitsof vigorous begging outweigh any possible disadvantages
S：authorin order to 目的题 compares costs with gain
TPO-12 Which Hand Did They Use?
Paragraph 5: Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate / that their users were right-handed / . The lateIce Age rope ( found in the French cave of Lascaux ) consists of fibers ( spiraling to the right ), and was thereforetressed by a righthander.
spiraling v. 盘旋上升（或下降）
3. In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux?
○ As an example of an item on which the marks of wear imply that it was used by a right-handed person
○ Because tressing is an activity that is easier for a right-handed person than for a left-handed person
○ Because the cave of Lascaux is the site where researchers have found several prehistoric tools made for right-handed people
○ As an exampleof an item ( whose construction ) shows**/** that it was right handed made by a right-person /
S：why does the author mention目的题
D： therefore
Transition to Sound in Film
Paragraph 2: Yet this most fundamental standard of historical periodization conceals a host of paradoxes . Nearly every movie theater , however modest, had a piano or organ to provide musical accompaniment to silent pictures. In many instances, spectators ( in the era beforerecorded sound ) experienced elaborate aural presentationsalongside movies' visual images, from the Japanese benshi (narrators) crafting multivoiced dialogue narratives to original musical compositions performed by symphony-size orchestras in Europe and the United States. In Berlin, for the premiere performance outside the Soviet Union of The Battleship Potemkin, film director Sergei Eisenstein worked with Austrian composer Edmund Meisel (1874-1930) on a musical score matching sound to image; the Berlin screenings with live music helped to bring the film its wide international fame.
aural adj. 听觉的;听的
4. Why does the author mention "Japanese benshi" and "original musical compositions"?
○To suggest that audiences preferredother forms of entertainment to film before the transition to sound inthe1920's
○To provide examples of some of the first sounds that were recorded for film
○To indicate some ways in which sound accompanied film before the innovation of sound films in the late 1920s
○To show how the use of sound in films changedduring different historical periods
S：why does the author mention目的题
Water in the Desert
Paragraph 2: Arid lands, surprisingly, contain some of the world's largest river systems, such as the Murray-Darling in Australia, the Rio Grande in North America, the Indus in Asia, and the Nile in Africa. These rivers and river systems are known as "exogenous" because their sources lie outside the arid zone. They are vital for sustaining life in some of the driest parts of the world. For centuries, the annual floods of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, for example, have brought fertile silts and water to the inhabitants of their lower valleys. Today, river discharges are increasingly controlled by human intervention, / creating a need for international river-basin agreements**/** . The fillingof the Ataturk and other dams in Turkey has drastically reduced flows in the Euphrates, with potentially serious consequencesfor Syria and Iraq.
5. In paragraph 2, why does the author mention the Ataturk and other dams in Turkey?
○To contrastthe Euphrates River with other exogenous rivers
○To illustrate the technological advancesin dam building
○To argue that damsshould not be built on the Euphrates River
○To support the idea that international river-basin agreements are needed
S：why does the author mention目的题
TPO-13 Biological Clocks
Paragraph 1: Survival and successful reproduction usually require the activities of animals to be coordinated with predictable events around them. Consequently, the timing and rhythms of biological functions must closely match periodic events like the solar day, the tides, the lunar cycle, and the seasons. The relations between animal activity and these periods, particularly for the daily rhythms, have been of such interest and importance that a huge amount of work has been done on them and the special research field of chronobiology has emerged. Normally, the constantly changing levels of an animal's activity---sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example---are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal's schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms. Almost universally, biologists accept the idea that all eukaryotes (a category that includes most organisms except bacteria and certain algae) have internal clocks. By isolating organisms completely from external periodic cues, biologists learned that organisms have internal clocks. For instance, apparently normal daily periods of biological activity were maintained for about a week by the fungus Neurospora when it was intentionally isolatedfrom all geophysical timing cues while orbiting in a space shuttle. The continuation of biological rhythms in an organism without external cues attests to its having an internal clock.
6. In paragraph 1, the experiment on the fungus Neurospora is mentioned to illustrate
○the existenceof weekly periods of activity as well as daily ones
○the finding of evidencethat organisms have internal clocks
○the effectof space on the internal clocks of organisms
○the isolationof one part of an organism's cycle for study
S：mentioned to illustrate目的题****Neurospora
Paragraph 2: When crayfish are kept continuously in the dark, even for four to five months, their compound eyes continue to adjust on a daily schedule for daytime and nighttime vision. Horseshoe crabs kept in the dark continuously for a year were found to maintain a persistent rhythm of brain activity that similarly adapts their eyes on a daily schedule for bright or for weak light. Like almost all daily cycles of animals / deprived of environmental cues / , those measured for the horseshoe crabs in these conditions were not exactly 24 hours . Such a rhythm whose period is approximately---/ but not exactly**/** ---a day is called circadian. For different individual horseshoe crabs, the circadian period ranged from 22.2 to 25.5 hours. A particular animal typically maintains its own characteristic cycle duration with great precision for many days. Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. Further evidence for persistent internal rhythms appears when the usual external cycles are shifted---either experimentally or by rapid east-west travel over great distances. Typically, the animal's daily internally generated cycle of activity continues without change. As a result, its activities are shifted relative to the external cycle of the new environment. The disorienting effects of this mismatch between external time cues and internal schedules may persist, like our jet lag, for several days or weeks until certain cues such as the daylight/darkness cycle reset the organism's clock to synchronize with the daily rhythm of the new environment.
7. In paragraph 2, why does the author mention that the period for different horseshoe crabs ranges from 22.2 to 25.5 hours?
○To illustrate that an animal's internal clock seldomhasa 24-hour cycle
○To argue that different horseshoe crabs will shift from daytime to nighttime visionat different times
○To illustrate the approximate rangeof the circadian rhythm of all animals
○To support the idea that external cues arethe only factors / affecting an animal's periodic behavior**/**
S：why author mention目的题****period different horseshoe crabs ranges
Methods of Studying Infant Perception
Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indicationof the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity ---turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth --- have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.
8. Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the eye?
○To identify a responsethat indicatesa neonate's perceptionof a stimulus
○To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli onlythrough repetitive movements
○To argue that motor activityin a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuli
○To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age
S：why author mention目的题
TPO-14 Children and Advertising
Paragraph 4: The use of celebrities such as singers and movie stars is common in advertising. The intention is for the positively perceived attributes of the celebrity to be transferred to the advertised product and for the two to become automatically linked in the audience's mind. In children's advertising, the "celebrities" are often animated figures from popular cartoons. In the recent past, the role of celebrities in advertising to children has often been conflated with the concept of host selling. Host selling involves blending advertisements with regular programming in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish one from the other. Host selling occurs, for example, when a children's show about a cartoon lion contains an ad in which the same lion promotes a breakfast cereal. The psychologist Dale Kunkel showed that the practice of host selling reduced children's ability to distinguish between advertising and program material. It was also found that older children responded more positively to products in host selling advertisements.
9. In paragraph 4, why does the author mention a show about a cartoon lion in which an advertisement appears featuring the same lion character?
○To help explain what is meant by the term "host selling" and why it can be misleadingto children
○To explain why the roleof celebrities in advertising / aimed at children / has often been confused with host selling
○To compare the effectivenessof using animated figures with the effectiveness of using celebrities in advertisements aimed at children
○To indicate how Kunkelfirst became interested in studying the effectsof host selling on children
S：why author mention目的题****show appears lion character
Maya Water Problems
Paragraph 1: To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." That is, while theredoes tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert."
10. Why does the author call the Mayan homeland both a "seasonal tropical forest" and "seasonal desert"?
○To illustrate how the climateof the Mayan homeland variedfrom region to region
○To explain how the climateof the Mayan homeland is similarto that of a jungle or tropical rainforest
○To emphasize the vast sizeof the area **/**that comprised the Mayan homeland in ancient times /
○To make the pointthat the Mayan homeland is climatically more complex thanis generally assumed
S：why author call目的题****both
Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia
Paragraph 2: The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants , pastoralists rely on domesticated animals . As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher positionon the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturaliststo secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, "The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism." A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move."
11. In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists?
○To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs
○To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies
○To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism
○To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed outof pastoralism
S：why author目的题****contrast pastoralists agriculturalists
Paragraph 3: Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas / that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features /. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.
12. In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss languages / spoken in the region spanning from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia / ?
○To emphasize the frequencywith which Indo-European languages changedas a result of the mobile nature of pastoralism
○To indicate one methodlinguists use to determinethat inhabitants of the Don and Dnieper river area had taken up stock breeding
○To provide evidence that Indo-European languages havetheir rootsin what is now Turkey
○To provide evidence that pastoralist societiescan exercisecultural influenceover a large area
S：why author目的题****languages Eastern Europe western
TPO-15 A Warm-Blooded Turtle
Paragraph 5: In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled blood from the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reaches the flipper itself. This is the same arrangement found in an old-fashioned steam radiator, in which the coiled pipes pass heat back and forth as water courses through them. The leatherback is certainly not the only animal with such an arrangement; gulls have a countercurrent exchange in their legs. That is why a gull can stand on an ice floe without freezing.
13. Why does the author mention old-fashioned steam radiator in the discussion of countercurrent exchange systems?
○To argue that a turtle's central heating system is not as highly evolvedas that of other warmblooded animals
○To provide a usefulcomparison with which to illustrate how a countercurrent exchange system works
○To suggest that steam radiators were modeled after the sophisticated heating system of turtles
○To establish the importance of the movement of water in countercurrent exchange systems
S：why author mention目的题****languages Eastern Europe western
Mass Extinctions
Paragraph 6: One interesting test of the Alvarez hypothesis is based on the presence of the rare-earth element iridium (Ir). Earth's crust contains very little of this element, but most asteroids contain a lot more. Debris thrown into the atmosphere by an asteroid collision would presumably contain large amounts of iridium, and atmospheric currents would carry this material all over the globe. A search of sedimentary deposits that span the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods shows that there is a dramatic increase in the abundance of iridium briefly and precisely at this boundary. This iridium anomaly offers strong supportfor the Alvarez hypothesis even though no asteroid itself has ever been recovered.
14. In stating that no asteroid itself has ever been recovered, the author emphasizes which of the following?
○The importanceof the indirect evidencefor a large asteroid
○The fact that no evidence supports the asteroidimpact hypothesis
○The reason many researchers reject the Alvarez hypothesis
○The responsibility of scientists for notmaking the effortto discover the asteroid itself
S：why author mention目的题
Glacier Formation
Paragraph3: Glaciers are part of Earth's hydrologic cycle and are second only to the oceans in the total amount of water contained. About 2 percent of Earth's water is currently frozen as ice. Two percent may be a deceiving figure, however, since over 80 percent of the world's freshwater is locked up as ice in glaciers, with the majority of it in Antarctica. The total amount of ice is even more awesome if we estimate the water released upon the hypothetical melting of the world's glaciers. Sea level would rise about 60 meters. This would change the geography of the planet considerably. In contrast, should another ice age occur, sea level would drop drastically. During the last ice age, sea level dropped about 120 meters.
15. Why does the author consider the hypothetical melting of the world's glaciers?
○To contrast the effectsof this event with the opposite effects of a new ice age
○To emphasize how much water is frozen in glaciers
○To illustrate the disastrous effectsof a warming trend
○To support the claim that glaciers are part of Earth's hydrologic cycle
S：why author consider目的题